Presentation of a Lesson
How does an instructor keep the attention of a class? The steps in Figure 5-6 form a guideline for lesson presentation. Many of them
can be combined during the actual presentation. For example, consider a video presentation given during the weight and balanc e
lecture. The video adds a multimedia element to the lecture, is a good attention getter, and can visually demonstrate the learning
objective.
Figure 5-6. Guidelines for presenting lessons.
Organization of Material
After determining objectives and standards, an instructor formulates a plan of action to lead learners through the course in a logical
manner toward the desired goal. Usually, the goal for learners is a certificate or rating. It could be a private pilot certificate, an
instrument rating, an AMT certificate or, other rating. In all cases, a systematic plan of action requires the use of an appropriate
training syllabus. Generally, the syllabus contains a description of each lesson, including objectives and completion standards.
The main concern of the instructor is usually organizing a block of training with integrated lesson plans. The traditional organization
of a lesson plan is introduction, development, and conclusion.
Lesson Introduction
The introduction sets the stage for everything to come. Efforts in this area pay great dividends in terms of quality of instruction. In
brief, the introduction is made up of three elements: attention, motivation, and an overview.
Attention
The purpose of the attention element is to focus each learner’s attention on the lesson. The instructor begins by telling a s tory,
showing a video clip, asking a question, or telling a joke. Any of these may be appropriate at one time or another. Regardless of
which is used, it should relate to the subject and establish a background for developing the learning outcomes. Telling a story or a
joke unrelated in some way to the subject distracts from the lesson. The main concern is to focus everyone’s attention on the subject.
[Figure 5-7]
Figure 5-7. The attention element causes learners to focus on the upcoming lesson.
Motivation
The motivation element offers the learners specific reasons why the lesson content is important to know, understand, apply, o r
perform and thus ensures readiness (Thorndike’s Law of Readiness). The instructor may provide examples where someone applied
the knowledge or remind the learners of an upcoming assessment. The motivation should appeal to each learner personally and
en
gender a desire to understand the material.
Overview
Every lesson introduction should contain an overview that tells the group what is to be covered during the period. A clear, concise
presentation of the objective and the key ideas gives the learners a road map of the route to be followed. A good visual aid can help
the instructor show the learners the path that they are to travel.
Development
Development is the main part of the lesson. Here, the instructor develops the subject matter in a manner that helps the learners
achieve the desired outcomes. The instructor organizes the material logically to show the relationships of the main points. The
instructor may show these primary relationships by developing the main points in one of the following ways: from past to present,
simple to complex, known to unknown, and most frequently used to least used.
Past to Present
In this pattern of development, the subject matter is arranged chronologically, from the present to the past or from the past to the
present. Time relationships are most suitable when history is an important consideration, as in tracing the development of radio
navigation systems.
Simple-to-Complex
The simple-to-complex pattern helps the instructor lead the learner from simple facts or ideas to an understanding of the phenomena
or concepts involved. When beginning a study of jet propulsion the learner might start by considering the forces involved whe n
releasing air from a toy balloon and finish by taking part in a discussion of a complex gas turbine engine.
Do not be afraid to omit less important information at first in order to simplify the learning process. If Class D, E, and G airspace are
the only airspace types being utilized by a learner, save the discussion of A, B, and C airspace until they have operating familiarity
with the other types. Less information at first is easier to absorb.
Known to Unknown
By using something the learner already knows as the point of departure, the instructor can lead into new ideas and concepts. For
example, when developing a lesson on heading indicators, the instructor could begin with a discussion of the magnetic compass
before proceeding to a description of gyroscopic indicators.
Most Frequently Used to Least Used
In some subjects, certain information or concepts are common to all who use the material. This fourth organizational pattern starts
with common usage before progressing to the rarer ones. Even though some aircraft are equipped with a computerized navigational
system, instructors should begin by teaching learners the basics of navigation since all pilots use the basic skills.
Under each main point in a lesson, the subordinate points should lead naturally from one to another. With this arrangement, each
point leads logically to and serves as a reminder of the next. Meaningful transition from one main point to another keeps the learners
oriented, aware of where they have been, and where they are going. This permits learners to sort or categorize information in their
working or short-term memory and allows them to process and remember what they have been taught.
Conclusion
An effective conclusion retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review and wrap-up of
ideas reinforces learning and improves retention. New ideas should not be introduced in the conclusion because they are likely to
confuse the learners
By organizing the lesson material into a logical format, the instructor maximizes the opportunity for learners to retain the desired
information. Since each teaching situation is unique, the setting and purpose of the lesson determines which teaching method is used.
Training Delivery Methods
Today’s instructor can choose from a wealth of ways to present instructional material: lecture, discussion, guided discussion, problem
based, group learning, demonstration-performance, or e-learning. In a typical lesson, an effective instructor normally uses a
combination of methods. The instructor determines which teaching method best conveys the information and when to use it. For
example, Bob lectures in the opening scenario, but after teaching how to compute weight and balance, he uses group learning t o
reinforce the lecture.
Lecture Method
In the lecture method, the instructor delivers knowledge via lectures to learners who are more or less silent participants. Lectures are
best used when an instructor wishes to convey a general understanding of a subject. In general, lectures begin with an introduction of
the topic to be discussed. The body of the lecture follows with a summary of the lecture’s main points at the end.
Lectures may introduce new subjects, summarize ideas, show relationships between theory and practice, and reemphasize main
points. Thus, the lecture method is adaptable to many different settings, including small or large groups. Finally, lectures may be
combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and direction.
There are different varieties of lectures. During the illustrated talk, the speaker relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the
listeners. When using a briefing, the speaker presents a concise array of facts to the listeners who normally do not expect elaboration
of supporting material. During a formal lecture, the speaker’s purpose is to inform, to persuade, or to entertain with little or no verbal
participation by the learners. When using a teaching lecture, the instructor plans and delivers an oral presentation in a manner that
allows some participation by the learners and helps direct them toward the desired learning outcomes.
Teaching Lecture
The teaching lecture is favored by aviation instructors because it allows some active participation by the learners. In other methods of
teaching such as demonstration-performance or guided discussion, the instructor receives direct reaction from the learners, either
verbally or by some form of body language. However in the teaching lecture, the feedback is not nearly as obvious and is much
harder to interpret. An effective instructor develops a keen perception for subtle responses from the class —facial expressions, manner
of taking notes, and apparent interest or disinterest in the lesson. The effective instructor is able to interpret the meaning of these
reactions and adjust the lesson accordingly.
Preparing the Teaching Lecture
The following four steps should be followed in the planning phase of preparation:
1. Establishing the objective and desired outcomes
2. Researching the subject
3. Organizing the material
4. Planning productive classroom activities
While developing the lesson, the instructor also should strongly consider the use of examples and personal experiences related to the
subject of the lesson. The instructor may support any point with meaningful examples, comparisons, statistics, or testimony.
After completing the preliminary planning and writing of the lesson plan, the instructor should rehearse the lecture to build self-
confidence. Rehearsals, or dry runs, help smooth out the mechanics of using notes, visual aids, and other instructional devices. If
possible, the instructor should have another knowledgeable person or another instructor observe the practice sessions and act as a
critic. This critique helps the instructor judge the adequacy of supporting materials and visual aids, as well as the overall presentation.
[Figure 5-8]
Figure 5-8. Instructors should try a dry run with another instructor to get a feel for the lecture presentation.
Suitable Language
In the teaching lecture, simple rather than complex words should be used whenever possible. The instructor should not, use
substandard English or errors in grammar.
If the subject matter includes technical terms, the instructor should clearly define each one so that no learner is in doubt about its
meaning. Whenever possible, the instructor should use specific rather than general words. For example, the specific words, “a leak in
the fuel line” tell more than the general term “discrepancy.”
Another way the instructor can add life to the lecture is to vary his or her tone of voice and pace of speaking. In addition, using
sentences of different length helps, since consistent use of short sentences results in a choppy style. On the other hand, poorly
constructed long sentences are difficult to follow and can easily become tangled. To ensure clarity and variety, the instructor should
normally use sentences of short and medium length.
Types of Delivery
A good teaching lecture utilizes an extemporaneous technique. The instructor speaks from a mental or written outline, but does not
read or memorize the material to be presented. Because the exact words to express an idea are spontaneous, the lecture is mor e
personalized than one that is read or spoken from memory.
If the instructor realizes from puzzled expressions that a number of learners fail to grasp an idea, that point can be further elaborated
until the reactions indicate they understand. The extemporaneous presentation reflects the instructor’s personal enthusiasm and is
more flexible than other methods. For these reasons, it is likely to hold the interest of the learners.
Notes used wisely can ensure accuracy, jog the memory, and dispel the fear of forgetting. They are essential for reporting
complicated information, and they may help keep the lecture on track. The instructor who requires notes should use them sparingly
and unobtrusively but at the same time should make no effort to hide them from the learners. [Figure 5-9]
Figure 5-9. Notes allow the accurate dissemination of complicated information.
An informal lecture includes active learner participation. Learning is best achieved if learners participate actively in a friendly,
relaxed atmosphere. The use of questions achieves active learner participation. In this way, the learners are encouraged to make
contributions that supplement the lecture. However, it is the instructor’s responsibility to plan, organize, develop, and present the
major portion of a lesson.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture
A lecture is a convenient way to instruct large groups. If necessary, a public address system can be used to amplify the spea ker’s
voice. Lectures can be used to present information that would be difficult for the learners to get in other ways, particularly if they do
not have the time required for research, or if they do not have access to reference material. Lectures supplement other teaching
devices and methods. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose to a demonstration or prepare learners for a
discussion by telling them something about the subject matter to be covered.
In a lecture, the instructor can present many ideas in a relatively short time. Logically organized tasks and ideas can be presented
concisely and in rapid sequence.
The lecture is particularly suitable for explaining any necessary background information. By using a lecture in this way, the instructor
can offer learners with varied backgrounds a common understanding of essential principles and facts. However, lectures do not allow
an instructor a precise measure of learner understanding of the material covered.
To achieve desired learning outcomes through the lecture method, an instructor needs considerable skill in speaking. As indicated in
Chapter 3, The Learning Process, a learner’s rate of retention drops off significantly after the first 10-15 minutes of a lecture and
improves at the end. Research has shown that learning is an active process —the more involved learners are in the process, the more
they retain.
The lecture does not foster attainment of certain types of learning outcomes, such as motor skills, which need to be perfected via
hands-on practice. Thus, an instructor who introduces some form of active learner participation in the middle of a lecture greatly
increases retention.
Discussion Method
The discussion method modifies the pure lecture form by using lecture and then discussion to actively integrate the learner into the
process. In the discussion method, the instructor provides a short lecture, which gives basic knowledge to the learners. This short
lecture is followed by instructor-learner and learner- learner discussion.
This method relies on discussion and th e exchange of ideas. Everyon e has the opportunity to comment, listen, think, and participate.
By being actively engaged in discussing the lecture, learners improve their recall and ability to use the information.
It is importan t for th e instructor to keep th e discussion focused on th e subjec t matter. Th e instructor may need to in itiate leading
questions, comment on any disagreements, ensure that all learners participate, and summarize what has been learned.
Tying the discussion method into the lecture method not only provides active participation, it also allows learners to develop higher
order thinking skills (HOTS). The give and take of the discussion method also helps learners evaluate ideas, concepts, and principles.
When using this method, instructors should keep their own discussion to a minimum since the goal is learner participation.
Guided Discussion Method
Instructors can also use another form of discussion, the guided discussion method, to ensure the learner has correctly received and
interpreted subject information. The learner needs a level of knowledge about the topic to be discussed, either through rea ding prior
to class or a short lecture to set up the topic to be discussed. This training method employs instructor-guided discussion with the
instructor maintains control of the discussion. It can be used during classroom periods and preflight and postflight briefings. The
discussions reflect whatever level of knowledge and experience the learners have gained.
The goal of guided discussions is to draw out the knowledge of the learner. The greater the participation becomes, the more effective
the learning will be. All members of the group should follow the discussion. The instructor should treat everyone impartially ,
encourage questions, exercise patience and tact, and comment on all responses with the goal of reinforcing a learning objective
related to the lesson. The instructor acts as a facilitator to encourage discussion between learners without sarcasm.
Use of Questions in a Guided Discussion
In the guided discussion, learning is achieved through the skillful use of questions. Questions can be categorized by function and
characteristics.
The instructor often uses a lead-off question to open up an area for discussion. After the discussion develops, the instructor may ask a
follow-up question to guide the discussion. The reasons for using a follow-up question may vary. The instructor may want a learner to
explain something more thoroughly, or may need to bring the discussion back to a point from which it has strayed. An instructor may
answer a question with a question and direct that question back to the person posing the question or other participant.
Questions are so much a part of teaching that they are often taken for granted. Effective use of questions may result in more learning
than any other single technique used by instructors. Instructors should avoid questions that can be answered by short factual
statements or yes or no responses and ask open-ended questions that are thought provoking and require more mental activity. Since
most aviation training is at the understanding level or higher, questions should require learners to grasp concepts, explain similarities
and differences, and to infer cause-and-effect relationships. [Figure 5-10]
Figure 5-10. If the objectives of a lesson are clearly established in advance, instructors will find it much easier to ask appropriate
questions that keep the discussion moving in the planned direction.
Planning a Guided Discussion
Planning a guided discussion is similar to planning a lecture. (Note that the following suggestions include many that are appropriate
for planning cooperative learning, to be discussed later in the chapter.)
⦁ Select an appropriate topic. Unless the learners have some knowledge to exchange with each other, they
cannot reach the desired learning outcomes. If necessary, make assignments that give the learners an
adequate background for discussing the lesson topic.
⦁ State the specific lesson objective at the understanding level of learning. Through discussion, the learners
develop an understanding of the subject by sharing knowledge, experiences, and backgrounds. The desired
learning outcomes should stem from the objective.
⦁ Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic. The instructor should always be alert for
ideas that will enhance a lesson for a particular group of learners. Similarly, the instructor can consider
any prediscussion assignment while conducting research for the classroom period. During this research
process, the instructor should also earmark reading material that appears to be appropriate as background
material for learners. Such material should be well organized and based on fundamentals.
⦁ Organize the main and subordinate points of the lesson in a logical sequence. The guided discussion has
three main parts: introduction, discussion, and conclusion. The introduction consists of three elements:
attention, motivation, and overview. During the discussion, the instructor should be certain that the main
points discussed build logically with the objective. The conclusion consists of the summary of the main
points. By organizing in this manner, the instructor phrases the questions to help the learners obtain a firm
grasp of the subject matter and to minimize the possibility of a rambling discussion.