Figure 5-15. The demonstration-performance method of teaching has five essential phases.
Demonstration Phase
The instructor shows learners the actions necessary to perform a skill. Extraneous activity should be excluded from the demonstration
so that learners clearly understand the desired actions. If the demonstration deviates from the explanation, this deviation should be
immediately acknowledged and explained.
Learner Performance and Instruction Supervision Phases
While they involve separate actions, the learner’s performance of th e physical or mental skills that and the instructor’s supervision
occur at the same time.
The instructor needs to allot enough time for meaningful activity. Through doing, learners learn to follow correct procedures and to
reach established standards. It is important that learners be given an opportunity to perform the skill as soon as possible after a
demonstration. In flight training, the instructor may allow the learner to follow along on the controls during the demonstration of a
maneuver. Immediately thereafter, the instructor should have the learner attempt to perform the maneuver, coaching as necessary. In
the opening scenario, learners performed a task (weight and balance computation) as a group, and prior to terminating the
performance phase, they were allowed to independently complete the task at least once with supervision and coaching as necessary.
Evaluation Phase
In this phase, the instructor judges learner performance. The learner displays whatever competence has been attained, and the
instructor identifies how well the skill has been mastered. To test performance ability, the instructor requires learners to work
independently throughout this phase and makes some comment about how each performed the skill relative to the way it was taught.
From this measurement of learner achievement, the instructor determines the effectiveness of the instruction.
Drill and Practice Method
Drill and practice, based on Thorndike's law of exercise discussed in Chapter 3, The Learning Process, predicts that connections are
strengthened with practice. The human mind rarely retains, evaluates, and applies new concepts or practices after one exposure.
Learners do not master welding during one shop period or perform crosswind landings during one instructional flight. They learn by
practicing and applying what they have been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. Effective use of drill and
practice revolves around what skill is being developed. The instructor provides opportunities for learners to practice and while
directing the process toward an objective.
Conclusion
A successful instructor needs to be various teaching methods. Although lecture and demonstration-performance methods usually work
well, awareness of other methods and teaching tools such as guided discussion, cooperative learning, and computer-assisted learning
better prepares an instructor for a wide variety of teaching situations.
Obviously, the aviation instructor is the key to effective teaching. The instructor’s tools are different teaching methods. Just as the
technician uses some tools more than others, the instructor uses some methods more often than others. As is the case with the
technician, there are times when a less used tool is the exact tool needed for a particular situation. The instructor’s success is
determined to a large degree by the ability to organize material and to select and utilize a teaching method appropriate to a particular
lesson.
Application of the Lesson
Application is the learner’s use of the presented material. If it is a classroom presentation, the learner may be asked to explain the new
material. If it is a new flight maneuver, the learner may be asked to perform the maneuver just been demonstrated. In most
instructional situations, the instructor’s explanation and demonstration activities alternate with learner performance efforts. Usually
the instructor offers corrections and further demonstrations. This is necessary because each learner needs to perform the maneuver or
operation the right way the first few times to establish a good habit. Faulty habits are difficult to correct and need to be addressed as
soon as possible. Flight instructors should know about this issue since learners often practice without an instructor. Periodic review
and assessment by the instructor is necessary to ensure that the learner has not acquired any bad habits, and learners should practice
maneuvers on solo flights only after demonstrating reasonable competence.
As the learner becomes proficient with the fundamentals of flight and aircraft maneuvers or maintenance procedures, the instructor
should increasingly emphasize ADM as a means of applying what has been previously learned. For example, the flight learner may be
asked to plan for the arrival at a specific nontowered airport. The planning should take into consideration the wind conditions, arrival
paths, communication procedures, available runways, recommended traffic patterns, and courses of action in the event the unexpected
occurs. Upon arrival at the airport the learner makes decisions (with guidance and feedback as necessary) to safely enter and fly the
traffic pattern.
Assessment of the Lesson
Before the end of the instructional period, the instructor should review what has been covered during the lesson and ask the learners
to demonstrate how well the lesson objectives have been met. Review and assessment are integral parts of each classroom, or flight
lesson. The instructor’s assessment may be informal and recorded only for the instructor’s own use in planning the next lesso n, or it
may be formal. Often, the assessment is formal and results recorded to certify the learner’s progress in the course. Assessment is
explored in more detail in Chapter 6.
Instructional Aids and Training Technologies
Instructional aids are devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. Instructional aids are not self-supporting; they
support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught. In contrast, training media are generally described as any physical means that
communicates an instructional message to learners. For example, the instructor’s voice, printed text, video cassettes, intera ctive
computer programs, part-task trainers, flight training devices, or flight simulators, and numerous other types of training devices are
considered training media.
In school settings, instructors may be involved in the selection and preparation of instructional aids, but they often are already in
place. An independent instructor may select or prepare instructional aids. Whatever the setting, instructors need to know how to use
them effectively.
Instructional Aid Theory
There is general agreement about certain factors that seem pertinent to understanding the use of instructional aids.
⦁ Carefully selected charts, graphs, pictures, or other well-organized visual aids are examples of items that
help the learner understand, as well as retain, essential information.
⦁ Ideally, instructional aids cover the key points and concepts.
⦁ The coverage should be straightforward and factual so it is easy for learners to remember and recall.
⦁ Generally, instructional aids that are relatively simple are best.
Reasons for Use of Instructional Aids
Properly used instructional aids help gain and hold the attention of learners. Audio or visual aids can be very useful in supporting a
topic, and the combination of both audio and visual stimuli is particularly effective since the two most important senses are involved.
One caution—the instructional aid should keep learner attention on the subject; it should not be a distracting gimmick.
Clearly, a major goal of all instruction is for the learner to be able to retain as much knowledge of the subject as possible, especially
the key points. Numerous studies have attempted to determine how well instructional aids serve this purpose. Indications from the
studies vary greatly —from modest results, which show a 10 to 15 percent increase in retention, to more optimistic results in which
retention is increased by as much as 80 percent. [Figure 5-16]
Figure 5-16. Studies generally agree that measurable improvement in learner retention of information occurs when instruction is
supported by appropriate instructional aids.
Good instructional aids also can help solve certain language barrier problems. Consider the continued expansion of technical
terminology in everyday usage. This, coupled with culturally diverse backgrounds of today’s learners, makes it necessary for
instructors to be precise in their choice of terminology. Words or terms used in an instructional aid should be carefully selected to
co
nvey the same meaning for the learner as they do for the instructor. They should provide an accurate visual image and make
learning easier.
Another use for instructional aids is to clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts. When relationships are
presented visually, they often are much easier to understand. For example, the subsystems within a physical unit are relatively easy to
relate to each other through the use of schematics or diagrams. Symbols, graphs, and diagrams can also show relationships of
location, size, time, frequency, and value. By symbolizing the factors involved, it is even possible to visualize abstract relationships.
Instructors are frequently asked to teach more and more in a smaller time frame. Instructional aids can help them do this. Fo r
example, instead of using many words to describe a sound, object, or function, the instructor plays a recording of the sound, shows a
picture of the object, or presents a diagram of the function. Consequently, the learner gains knowledge faster and more accurately,
and the instructor saves time in the process.
Guidelines for Use of Instructional Aids
The use of any instructional aid should be planned, based on its ability to support a specific point in a lesson. The following process
can be used to determine if and where instructional aids are necessary:
⦁ Clearly establish the lesson objective. Be certain of what is to be communicated.
⦁ Gather the necessary data by researching for support material.
⦁ Organize the material into an outline or a lesson plan. The plan should include all key points that need to be
co
vered. This may include important safety considerations.
⦁ Select the ideas to be supported with instructional aids. The aids should be concentrated on the key points.
ids are often appropriate when long segments of technical description are necessary, when a point is
complex and difficult to put into words, when instructors find themselves forming visual images, or when
learners are puzzled by an explanation or description.
Aids should be simple and compatible with the learning outcomes to be achieved. Obviously, an explanation of elaborate equipment
may require detailed schematics or mock-ups, but less complex equipment may lend itself to only basic shapes or figures. Since aids
are normally used in conjunction with a verbal presentation, words on the aid should be kept to a minimum. In many cases, visual
symbols and slogans can replace in-depth explanations. The instructor should avoid the temptation to use the aids as a crutch. The
tendency toward unnecessarily distracting artwork should be avoided.
Instructional aids should appeal to the learner and be based on sound principles of instructional design. When practical, they should
encourage learner participation. They also should be meaningful to the learner, lead to the desired behavioral objectives, and provide
appropriate reinforcement. Aids that involve mastering a physical skill should guide learners toward mastery of the skill or task
specified in the lesson objective.
Instructional aids have no value in the learning process if they cannot be heard or seen. Recordings of sounds and speeches should be
tested for correct volume and quality in the actual environment in which they will be used. Visual aids should be visible to the entire
class. All lettering and illustrations need to be large enough to be seen easily by the learners farthest from the aids. Colors should
provide clear contrast.
While many instructional aids come with purchased material, the effectiveness of instructor-produced aids and the ease of their
preparation can be increased by initially planning them in rough draft form. The rough draft should be carefully checked for technical
accuracy, proper terminology, grammar, spelling, basic balance, clarity, and simplicity. Instructional aids should also be reviewed to
determine whether their use is feasible in the training environment and whether they are appropriate for the learners. See the figure for
a summary of the desired qualities of instructional aids. [Figure 5-17]
Figure 5-17. Guidelines for effective instructional aids.
Types of Instructional Aids
Some of the most common and economical aids are marker boards and supplemental print materials, including charts, diagrams, and
graphs. Other aids include projected material, video, computer-based programs, and models, mock-ups, or cut-aways.
Marker Board
The marker board is a classroom tool for instructors. Its versatility and effectiveness provide several advantages for most types of
instruction. First, the material presented can be erased, allowing the surface to be used again and again; and second, the boards serve
as an excellent medium for joint learner-instructor activity in the classroom.
Supplemental Print Material
Print media, including photographs, reproductions of pictures, drawings, murals, cartoons, and other print materials are valuable
supplemental aids. Charts, diagrams, and graphs are also in this category. Many of these items are suitable for long-term use on
bulletin boards and in briefing areas. Pictures, drawings, and photographs are especially effective because they provide common
visual imagery for both instructors and learners. In addition, they also provide realistic details necessary for visual recognition of
important subject material. In many cases, this type of supplemental training media may be reproduced in a format for projection on a
screen or other clear surface.
Enhanced Training Materials
Training syllabi represent enhanced training material and contain provisions for instructor endorsements and recordkeeping. Such
syllabi not only present the course of training in a logical step- by-step, building block sequence, they contain provisions to remind
both learners and instructors of critical regulatory training benchmarks which are approaching. When required endorsements an d
recordkeeping provisions are designed into training syllabi, it is much easier, from the instructor’s standpoint, to conduct required
training, track learner progress, and certify records. The training record can be reviewed and the training status easily assessed in case
the learner transfers to another school or instructor.
Another example of enhanced, instructor-oriented material for pilot training is a maneuvers guide or handbook which includes the
ACS as an integral part of the description of maneuvers and procedures. From the beginning learners understand how to perform the
maneuver or procedure and also become familiar with the performance criteria. The examiner for the Airframe and Powerplant
(A&P) is required to ask four questions in each of the subject areas, which are required by the regulations to be taught. The examiner
also is required to assign a practical project from each subject area. Individual maintenance instructors, as well as publishers, have
compiled lists of typical questions and projects. Use of these questions and projects as part of the syllabus helps an instructor ensure
that all subject areas for a particular class have been covered.
Projected Material
Whatever type of projected training aid used, it is essential for the content to be current and support the lesson. Use of p rojected
materials requires planning and practice. The instructor should set up and adjust the equipment and lighting beforehand and then
preview the presentation. During a classroom session, the instructor should provide learners with an overview of the presentation
before showing it. After the presentation, the instructor should allow time for questions and a summary of key points.
Computers have changed the way information is presented to today’s learner. A laptop computer may be all that is needed for the
one-on-one presentation. For groups, the instructor can tailor the presentation for the class and use a large screen or other viewin g
system.
Video
Instructors need to follow some basic guidelines when using video. The presentation is not designed to replace the instructor. Prior
planning will help determine the important points and concepts that should be stressed, either during the presentation or summary.
Instructors should be available to summarize the presentation and answer any questions learners may have regarding content.
Interactive Systems
“Interactive” refers broadly to computer software that responds quickly to certain choices and commands by the user. A typical
system consists of interactive material and a computer. With search-and-find features incorporated, the system is a powerful
information source. The software may include additional features such as image banks with full color photos and graphics, as well as
questions or directions which are programmed to create interactivity for learners as they progress through the course.
The questions or directions are programmed using a branching technique, which provides several possible courses of action for the
user to choose in order to move from one sequence to another. For example, a program may indicate, “That was incorrect. Go back to
… and try again.”
Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL)
As mentioned earlier, CAL has become a popular training delivery method. In its b asic form, CAL is a combination of more than one
instructional media, such as audio, text, graphics, and video (or film) usually shown on a PC.
With CAL, the roles of both learner and instructor change. Learners become more involved and instructors may no longer occupy a
center-stage position in a typical classroom setting. Instead, instructors become supportive facilitators. As such, they serve as guides
or resource experts and circulate among learners who are working individually or in small groups. This results in considerable one -
on-one instructor-learner interaction. Thus, the instructor provides assistance, reinforcement, and answers for those who need it most.
In this situation, the CAL should still be considered as an add-on instructional aid to improve traditional classroom instruction. The
instructor, although no longer the center of attention, continues to maintain adequate control over the learning environment to ensure
learning objectives are being achieved. [Figure 5-18]
A more advanced application of computer-based training may involve less instructor control. For example, a laboratory-type
environment may be configured with separate study areas for each learner. With this setup, the physical facility is usually referred to
as a learning center or training center.
Learners in these centers are often monitored by a teacher’s aide or other trained personnel who can provide guidance, answer
questions, and act as a conduit to the instructor who is responsible for the training. In this case, the responsible instructor needs to
establish procedures to make sure the required training is accomplished, since he or she certif ies learner competency at the end of the
course.
Figure 5-18. In a computer-assisted learning environment, the instructor still ensures that learning objectives are being achieved.
Models, Mock-ups, and Cut-Aways
Models, mock-ups, and cut-aways are additional instructional aids. A model is a copy of a real object. It can be an enlargement, a
reduction, or the same size as the original. The scale model represents an exact reproduction of the original, while simplified models
do not represent reality in all details. Some models are solid and show only the outline of the object they portray, while others can be
manipulated or operated.
Although a model may not be a realistic copy of an actual piece of equipment, it can be used effectively in explaining operating
principles of various types of equipment. Models are especially adaptable to small group discussions in which learners are
encouraged to ask questions. A model is even more effective if it works like the original, and if it can be taken apart and reassembled.
With the display of an operating model, the learners can observe how each part works in relation to the other parts. When the
instructor points to each part of the model while explaining these relationships, the learners can better understand the mechanical
principles involved. As instructional aids, models are usually more practical than originals because they are lightweight and easy to
manipulate.
A mock-up is a three-dimensional or specialized type of working model made from real or synthetic materials. It is used for study,
training, or testing in place of the real object, which is too costly or too dangerous, or which is impossible to obtain. The mock-up
may emphasize or highlight elements or components for learning and eliminate nonessential elements.
Cut-aways, another type of model, are built in sections and can be taken apart to reveal the internal structure. Whenever possible, the
various parts should be labeled or colored to clarify relationships.
Production and equipment costs are limiting factors to consider in developing and using models, mock-ups, and cut-aways.
Depending on the nature of the representation, cost can vary. For instance, scale replicas are often very expensive. In general, if a
two-dimensional representation will satisfy the instructor’s requirement, it should be used.
Test Preparation Material
Test preparation material applies to an array of paper, video, and computer software products that are designed by commercial
publishers to help learner applicants prepare for FAA tests. While test preparation materials may be effective in preparing for FAA
tests, the danger is that learners may be able to pass a given test, but fail to learn other critical information essential to safe piloting
and maintenance practices. FAA inspectors and designated examiners report that learner applicants sometimes exhibit a lack of
knowledge during oral questioning, even though many have easily passed the FAA knowledge test. A major shortcoming of test
preparation materials is that the emphasis is on rote learning, which is the lowest of all levels of learning.
Test preparation materials, as well as instructors, that dwell on teaching the test are shortchanging learner applicants. All instructors
who use test preparation publications should stress that these materials are not designed as stand-alone learning tools. They should be
considered as a supplement to instructor-led training.
Future Developments
Electronic communications, including use of computer databases, voice mail, e-mail, Internet, World Wide Web, and satellite-based,
wireless communications, are routine and this explosion of information access affects aviation training. It will be even more
significant in the future.
Computer technology continues to advance in quantum leaps, challenging traditional ways of teaching. For example, voice-
recognition technology, which lets computers accept spoken rather than keyed input, is highly effective for technical training.
Miniature electro-optical devices allow computer-aided information to be projected electronically on sunglass-style eye wear which is
connected to a lightweight, belt mounted computer. Computer-aided information is particularly useful for aviation maintenance
activities. For example, it would be possible for a technician’s eyes to easily move back and forth from computer-generated technical
data to the actual hardware while diagnosing and correcting a maintenance problem.
Trends in training indicate a shift from the typical classroom to more extensive use of a lab-type environment with computer work or
study stations. Using simulation devices, computer networks, and multimedia programs, learners become more actively involved and
responsible for their own training. Aviation-related learning centers are usually associated with colleges, universities, and research
centers. The airlines, as well as aeronautical programs at some colleges and universities, have used similar facilities for many years.
Another type of computer-based technology, virtual reality (VR), creates a sensory experience that allows a participant to believe and
barely distinguish a virtual experience from a real one. VR uses graphics with animation systems, sounds, and images to reproduce
electronic versions of real-life experience. Despite enormous potential, VR is expensive.
For those engaged in aviation training, the challenge is staying abreast of technological changes that apply to training and adopting
those that are the most useful and cost effective. Since much of the new technology is based on computer technology, instructors with
well-developed computer skills are in demand.
While evaluating new teaching methods and technology, instructors should remember their main teaching goals. Electronic
information on computer networks and bulletin boards may come from reputable publishers, as well as community, state, and national
government agencies. There is, however, no guarantee that all of this information is current or even accurate.
Chapter Summary
As indicated by this discussion, the teaching process organizes the material an instructor wishes to teach in such a way that the learner
understands what is being taught. An effective instructor uses a combination of teaching methods as well as instructional aids to
achieve this goal.
By being well prepared, an effective instructor presents and applies lesson material, and also periodically assesses learning. An
effective instructor never stops learning. He or she maintains currency in the subject matter being taught, as well as how to teach it by
reading professional journals and other aviation publications, many of which can be viewed or purchased via the Internet, another
source of valuable aviation information for professional instructors.