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12546
Figure D-3. Scenario 3 chart excerpt.
12547
The weather throughout the basin is marginal VFR, with visibility of 3-5 miles and ceilings varying from 1,700 feet at FUL
to 800 feet at POC. Clear skies are forecast after 2:00 PM. The pilot has an instrument rating, and the helicopter has IFR
instrumentation, but it is not approved for IFR flight. The pilot is not instrument current. High terrain exists on the leg from
SMO to VNY , although the pilot could divert to the east and fly through a pass in VMC to get to VNY .
Scenario 4: Turbojet-Powered Airplane
12548
The pilot, based in Springfield, IL (SPI), owns a consulting firm with a nationwide clientele. The pilot flies a small turbojet
airplane and uses it to get to meetings with clients. The pilot recently completed an approved training course and a type rating
practical test. The pilot adds 20 percent to takeoff and landing distances as a personal minimum.
12549
A client in Turners Falls, MA has an urgent need for a meeting tomorrow, Thursday, to evaluate some engineering plans and
data. The meeting would take place in an industrial park on the Turners Falls airport (0B5). The 0B5 airport is 790 NM from
SPI. The flight planning software indicates the flight will take about 2:15 and using a cruise altitude of FL350 provides a 45
minute reserve. The weather for Thursday in Massachusetts is forecast to be marginal VFR with ceilings of 1,200 feet and five
miles visibility with cloud tops at 8,000 feet.
12550
The pilot considers the destination logistics and consults both the New York sectional chart, the associated chart supplement,
as well as sources for fuel, airport services, rental cars, and hotels. [Figure D-4]
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12551
Figure D-4. Scenario 4 chart excerpt.
12552
The runway at Turners Falls is 3,200 feet. Nearby airports Orange (ORE) and Northampton (7B2) have runways of 5,000 feet
and 3,335 feet, respectively. The calculated unfactored landing distance is 2,760 feet at the landing weight at Turners Falls with
600 pounds of fuel remaining. The calculated unfactored takeoff distance is 2,600 feet at full fuel or 1900 feet with only 600
pounds of fuel.
12553
After a phone discussion with the client, the pilot realizes the meeting will require 6 hours. If the departure from SPI occurs
at 8:00 AM, the meeting arrival at 0B5 should take place after 11:00 AM. If the meeting ends at 5:00 PM, and the pilot flies
back to SPI, the arrival there will occur sometime after 8:00 PM Thursday evening, assuming a non-stop flight. The pilot has
an important meeting back in Springfield on Friday.
12554
Turners Falls has no jet fuel, no rental cars, and only marginal hotel availability. Orange has jet fuel, but no rental cars, and no
suitable lodging nearby. Northampton has no jet fuel but does have rental cars and numerous full-service hotels available. The
nearest airport with all of these services is in Westfield-Barnes Regional, MA (BAF, 9,000-foot runway) about 20 miles south
of Northampton.
12555
The minimums at Orange and Westfield-Barnes Regional provide for vertical guidance through LPV minima. At Northampton,
only lateral guidance (LNA V) is available with a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) approximately 800 feet above the ground.
Only circling minimums with an MDA approximately 1,100 feet above ground is available at Turners Falls.
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#
14 CFR. See Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
3P. An acronym that represents the three components of the risk management cycle: Perceive, Process, Perform.
A
Acceptable risk. That part of identified risk that is allowed to persist without further engineering or management action. Making
this decision is a difficult yet necessary responsibility for managing activity. This decision is made with full knowledge that it
is the user who is exposed to this risk.
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM). A systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
Automatic decision-making. Quick decision-making based on experience and the expectation of a good outcome.
C
CARE. An acronym that represents the four risk assessment and mitigation elements: Consequences, Alternatives, Reality, and
External pressures.
CAST/ICAO Common Taxonomy Team (CICTT). A group that developed common classifications and definitions for aviation
accident and incident reporting.
Checklist. A tool that is used as a human factors aid in aviation safety. It is a systematic and sequential list of all operations that
must be performed to accomplish a task properly.
Commercial Aviation Safety Team (CAST). Organization founded in 1997 to bring together various segments of the aviation
community with the goal to reduce accidents through a data-driven approach.
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT). An accident whereby an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, inadvertently flies into
terrain, an obstacle, or water.
CFR. See Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations.
Crew resource management (CRM). The application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. CRM
programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance personnel, and others. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger
aircraft, should make effective use of all available resources; human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition
includes all groups routinely working with the flight deck crew who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight
safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air
traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the human/machine interface and accompanying
interpersonal activities.
Currency. Meeting all established requirements.
E
Electronic flight bag (EFB). A portable or integrated device that allows the pilot to carry all necessary aeronautical and
performance data, weight and balance, and aircraft checklists in digital form and may allow remote manipulation of the avionics
through wireless radio connections.
Emergency. An urgent condition or distress that requires immediate attention.
Error. Deviations from intended or expected actions that are caused by the flight crew that cause confusion, increase workload,
absorb attention, reduce safety margins, increase risk, and may lead to undesired aircraft states.
External pressures. Influences external to the flight that create a sense of pressure to complete a flight—often at the expense
of safety.
Glossary
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F
Flight management system (FMS). A system normally integrated into a technically advanced aircraft that provides an efficient
means of loading and programming horizontal and vertical flight path information that can be tracked by the autopilot or
followed manually by the pilot using flight director and other guidance cues.
Flight risk assessment tool (FRAT). A way to record and analyze identified hazards and risks. A FRAT can be numerical
(scoring predetermined hazards) to measure risk or narrative (recording identified hazards, associate risk, and individual risk
mitigations).
G
General aviation. All flights other than military and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial.
General Aviation Joint Steering Committee (GAJSC). Team of FAA and general aviation community members formed to
analyze general aviation accidents and create safety enhancements that can mitigate leading accident causes.
H
Hazard. A present condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to or contribute to an unplanned or undesired event,
such as an accident.
Human behavior. The product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways.
Human factors. A multidisciplinary field devoted to optimizing human performance and reducing human error. It incorporates
the methods and principles of the behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology. It may be described as the
applied science which studies people working together in concert with machines. Human factors involve variables that influence
individual performance, as well as team or crew performance.
I
Identified risk. The risk that has been determined through various analysis techniques. The first task of system safety is to
identify, within practical limitations, all possible risks.
IMSAFE. An acronym that represents the six aeromedical risk areas: Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol, Fatigue, and Emotion.
Instrument flight rules (IFR). Rules that govern the procedure for conducting flight in weather conditions below VFR weather
minimums. The term “IFR” also is used to define weather conditions and the type of flight plan under which an aircraft is
operating.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from clouds,
and ceiling less than the minimums specified for visual meteorological conditions, requiring operations to be conducted under
IFR.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). An international body that sets aviation safety standards. Member states
agree to formulate regulation to meet those standards.
J
Judgment. The mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational
evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take.
L
Loss of control in-flight (LOC-I). An accident caused by the pilot not maintaining control of the airplane. Many LOC-I accidents
are the result of stalls, spins, or accelerated maneuvers.
M
Mode annunciator. A display panel normally integrated into the primary flight display that shows the current status and operating
functions of the autopilot or flight director.
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Mode controller. The interface used by the pilot to select autopilot or flight director operating modes and to engage or disengage
the autopilot system.
N
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). A United States Government independent organization responsible for
investigations of accidents involving aviation, highways, waterways, pipelines, and railroads in the United States. The NTSB is
charged by the Congress of the United States to investigate civil aviation accidents.
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM). A notice filed with an aviation authority to alert aircraft pilots of any hazards en route or at a
specific location. The authority in turn provides means of disseminating relevant NOTAMs to pilots.
Naturalistic decision-making. See Automatic decision-making.
P
PA VE. An acronym that represents the four risk identification areas: Pilot, Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures.
Personality. The embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at a very early age and are
extremely resistant to change.
Pilot report (PIREP). Report of meteorological phenomena encountered by aircraft.
Probable cause. The defining event that directly leads to an accident.
Proficiency. Possessing a high standard of competence or expertise.
Q
Qualification. Having the certificates, ratings, endorsements, or other designations required for the operation.
R
Residual risk. The remaining risk after system safety efforts have been fully employed. It is not necessarily the same as acceptable
risk. Residual risk is the sum of acceptable risk and unidentified risk. This is the total risk passed on to the user.
Risk. The future impact of a hazard that is not eliminated or controlled.
Risk assessment. An approach to managing uncertainty. Risk assessment is a quantitative value assigned to a task, action, or
event.
Risk assessment matrix. A tool used to see the relationship between risk likelihood and risk severity to determine an overall level
of risk, measured as low, medium, serious, or high.
Risk likelihood. The probability of encountering risk categorized as probable, occasional, remote, or improbable.
Risk management. The part of the decision-making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and
good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.
Risk mitigation. The process of reducing risk likelihood and severity to lower levels.
Risk severity. The magnitude of consequences of risk categorized as catastrophic, critical, marginal, or negligible.
Root cause. The underlying reason that leads the pilot or aircraft toward the probable cause of an accident.
S
Safety management system (SMS). The application of special technical and managerial skills to the systematic, forward-looking
identification and control of hazards throughout the life cycle of a project, program, or activity.
Single-pilot resource management (SRM). The art/science of managing all the resources (both on board the aircraft and from
outside sources) available to a single pilot (before and during flight) to ensure that the successful outcome of the flight is never
in doubt.
Situational awareness. Perception of variables in the environment, comprehension of their meaning, and projection of their
status in the near future.
Stress. The body’s response to demands placed upon it.
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System component failure of the powerplant (SCF-PP). An accident caused by failure of an engine component that may lead
to complete failure of the engine.
T
TEAM (or TEMA). An acronym that represents the four risk mitigation process steps: Transfer, Eliminate, Accept, and Mitigate
(or Transfer, Eliminate, Mitigate, and Accept).
Technically advanced airplane (TAA). An airplane equipped with an electronically advanced avionics system.
Threat. Hazards present in the environment or that are outside the influence of the flight crew that increase operational complexity
and may lead to errors.
Threat and error management (TEM). A risk management methodology designed to anticipate and prevent threats from creating
errors, trap errors before they cause undesired aircraft states, and mitigate undesired aircraft states to stop an incident or accident
from occurring.
Total risk. The sum of identified and unidentified risks.
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). Includes what was formerly known as the Federal Aviation Regulations
governing the operation of aircraft, airways, and airmen.
U
Unacceptable risk. The risk that cannot be tolerated by the managing activity. It is a subset of identified risk that must be
eliminated or controlled.
Unidentified risk. Risk not yet identified. Some unidentified risks are subsequently identified when a mishap occurs. Some risk
is never known.
Undesirable risk. A tolerable risk that must be prepared for and mitigated as best as possible.
V
Visual flight rules (VFR). Code of Federal Regulations that govern the procedures for conducting flight under visual conditions.
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and
ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums specified for VFR.
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Symbols
3P model ............................................................................................................................ 8-1, 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, B-2, B-3
A
Advisory Circular .................................................................................................................................................... 8-1
aeronautical decision-making ....................................................................................................6-5, 8-1, 8-3, 8-4, G-1
Airman Certification Standards (ACS) ...................................................................................................................A-1
airspace ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-4, 3-6, 3-7
air traffic control (ATC) .......................................................................1-1, 1-3, 3-4, 3-8, 3-16, 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5,
7-2, 8-4, C-3, G-1
analytical decision-making .............................................................................................................................. 8-1, 8-2
automatic decision-making .....................................................................................................................................G-1
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) ............................................................................................6-3, 7-2
automation .....................................................................................................5-1, 6-1, 6-5, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 8-3, A-1, C-5
autopilot ..............................................................................................................3-6, 7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, C-4, C-5, G-2
C
CARE checklist ...............................................................................................................................................B-3, G-1
checklist .................................................................................................. 1-2, 3-2, 3-4, 3-5, 3-12, 3-15, 3-16, 4-3, 5-1,
5-5, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, 6-6, 8-3, 8-4, B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, C-1, C-4, C-5, G-1
controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) ............................................................3-3, 3-4, 3-7, 3-16, 4-3, 4-4, 8-3, C-4, G-1
crew resource management (CRM) ........................................................................................6-5, 8-3, AI-1, C-1, G-1
D
DECIDE Model ...............................................................................................................................................8-1, B-4
E
electronic flight bag (EFB) ........................................................................................................2-6, 5-3, 5-5, 8-2, G-1
environment .............................................................................................................1-2, 3-7, 3-15, 3-16, 4-4, 6-4, G-3
expectation bias ................................................................................................................................................6-2, 6-3
external pressures ................................................................................1-2, 3-8, 3-16, 4-4, 5-2, 5-3, 5-5, 6-2, A-1, B-3,
C-2, C-3, C-4, G-1, G-3
F
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ............................................1-1, 2-5, 3-3, 3-5, 3-11, 5-5, 8-1, AI-1, C-2, G-2
WINGS Program .................................................................................................................................................. 2-5
Flight Risk Assessment Tool (FRAT) ........................................................... 3-10, 3-11, 3-12, 3-16, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 5-4
H
human
behavior ................................................................................................................................................................G-2
error .............................................................................................................................................................. 8-1, G-2
factors ...................................................................................................................................................6-4, G-1, G-2
hypoxia ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-5
I
IMSAFE checklist ......................................................................................................................3-5, 3-6, 4-3, 5-1, G-2
Index
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Risk Management Handbook (FAA-H-8083-2A)
instrument flight rules (IFR) .....................................................................2-3, 3-5, 3-7, 3-8, 3-14, 3-15, 4-3, 5-2, 7-3,
C-2, D-2, D-3, G-2
low instrument flight rules (LIFR) ....................................................................................................................... 2-3
instrument landing system (ILS) .............................................................................................................................5-5
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) ....................................................1-3, 2-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-7, 3-14, 3-15, G-2
L
loss of control ..................................................................................................................3-1, 3-7, 3-15, 3-16, 4-1, C-5
in-flight (LOC-I) ...............................................................................................3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 4-3, 4-4, C-2, C-4, G-2
on the ground (LOC-G) ........................................................................................................................................3-7
N
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) ....................................1-1, 1-2, 3-1, 3-2, 6-2, 6-3, C-1, C-2, C-3, C-4,
G-3
naturalistic decision-making ....................................................................................................................8-3, 8-4, G-3
nighttime ..................................................................................................................................................3-1, C-4, C-5
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM) ...........................................................................................................................6-3, G-3
P
PA VE checklist ..........................................................1-2, 3-4, 3-12, 3-15, 4-3, 5-1, 5-5, B-1, B-2, B-3, C-1, C-4, C-5,
G-3
perceive ...............................................................................................................1-3, 3-1, 6-3, 6-6, 8-2, B-2, B-3, G-1
perform ............................................................................................................................................8-2, B-3, B-4, G-1
personal minimum ..................................................................................................................................................D-3
pilot error ................................................................................................................................................................ 1-3
pilot operating handbook (POH) .............................................................................................................................C-1
primary flight display (PFD) ...........................................................................................................................7-3, G-2
process ....................................................................................................................................................8-2, B-3, G-1
R
risk
assessment ............................................................................3-10, 3-16, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-5, AI-1, B-1, B-3, G-1, G-3
matrix .............................................................................................4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4, 4-5, 5-2, AI-1, B-2, C-2, G-3
factors .............................................................................................................................................1-2, 8-1, C-1, C-3
management ..............................................................................1-1, 1-2, 1-3, 3-4, 3-12, 3-16, 5-1, 5-5, 6-1, 6-5, 7-2,
8-2, 8-3, AI-1, A-1, B-1, D-1, G-1, G-3, G-4
mitigation .2-5, 3-16, 4-5, 5-1, 5-2, 5-5, 6-2, 8-3, AI-1, B-1, B-2, B-3, B-4, C-1, C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5, D-1, G-1, G-3,
G-4
S
single-pilot resource management (SRM) ............................................................................... 5-5, 8-3, 8-4, A-1, G-3
situational awareness ............................................................................3-4, 6-4, 6-5, 7-1, 7-3, 7-4, 8-3, A-1, C-4, G-3
standard operating procedures (SOPs) .............................................................................................................3-2, 6-3
stress .......................................................................................................................2-5, 3-5, 5-1, 5-5, 6-2, G-2, G-3
T
terrain ................................................................................................ 2-2, 2-4, 3-3, 3-4, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-16, 4-1, 4-3,
4-4, 5-2, 5-3, 6-4, 7-3, 8-3, C-4, D-3, G-1
V
visual flight rules (VFR) .....................................................................2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 3-1, 3-4, 3-6, 3-7, 3-8, 3-9, 3-13,
3-14, 3-15, 3-16, 5-2, 7-3, C-4, D-2, D-3, G-2, G-4
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W
waypoint ...........................................................................................................................................................5-3, 7-1
weather .................................................................................................. 3-4, 3-6, 4-3, 4-4, 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, 5-5, 6-1, 6-4,
8-2, C-2, D-1, D-2, D-3, G-2
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